![]() ![]() Direct recycling is shown to have the lowest impacts in all categories. ![]() Figure 7 compares the costs and selected environmental impacts to produce 1 kg of NMC111 from virgin raw materials and recycled pyrometallurgically, hydrometallurgically, and by direct recycling, all at large commercial scales (50,000 T/y). Unit processes will also, of course, be compared on the basis of performance (see Section 4.2.4). In addition, as we will show in Section 4.2.4, it can be used to compare different unit processes for a given process step, or similar process chains at different scales. It can also be used to explore sensitivity of costs and impacts to different parameters. It can be used to compare costs and impacts, such as energy and water use, greenhouse gas emissions, and emissions of criteria pollutants, for the production of materials or cells from virgin raw materials to impacts from different recycling processes. ExportsĮverBatt models a closed loop of cell production from either virgin or recovered materials and back around through the end of life. Figure 2 shows one analyst’s view that production scrap will become the dominant source of material for recycling plants. (Fujian, China), Limited (CATL) as its main feedstock. In China, Hunan Brunp mainly produces ternary precursors for power batteries, using battery scraps from Contemporary Amperex Technology Co. Redwood Materials gets scrap from Panasonic, which “alone provides approximately one gigawatt of material annually and (also) a dozen other partners contribute a similar amount, for a total equivalent of approximately 20,000 tons of material per year”. Scrap is an important feedstock for North American recyclers such as Li-Cycle and American Manganese. ReCell scientists have already demonstrated that recovered cathode material from manufacturing scrap can be used in new cells directly, without any need to upgrade it. Scrap may be composed of trimmings or rejected product from several process steps, but it contains fewer components, is likely to be unpackaged, and is of known composition. This paper provides background and describes highlights of the center’s first 2 years of operation. Analysis and modeling serve to evaluate and compare process options so that we can identify those that will be most economical while still minimizing energy use and environmental impacts. Other materials are recovered as well in order to maximize revenues and minimize waste-handling costs. The central feature of the technology is recovery of the cathode material with its unique crystalline cathode morphology intact in order to retain its value and functionality. Department of Energy, therefore, established the ReCell Center in early 2019 to develop robust LIB recycling technology that would be economical even for batteries that contain no cobalt. ![]() However, commercial recycling processes depend on profits from recovery of cobalt, use of which is being reduced in new cathode chemistries. The batteries may be reused, but will eventually be spent and provide a potential domestic resource that can help supply materials for future battery production. The expected rapid growth in electric vehicle deployment will inevitably be followed by a corresponding rise in the supply of end-of-life vehicles and their lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). ![]()
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